This post first appeared on LinkedIn in 2022 and has been lightly edited for this site.
A few weeks ago, I wrote an article about rhetoric, not knowing if it would be useful, not knowing if I should change my usual subject areas of grammatical usage and style, not knowing if readers would like the advice. Nonetheless, I’m here with another related writing tip. This one is on rhetorical devices for restating ideas. As with my other posts on rhetoric, I’ll be introducing a few unusual words, words you will likely never use again in your lifetime. But as I illustrated before, these are just technical terms, and the ideas behind the terms are much more important than the terms and easier to understand.
Restatements for Rhetorical Effect
When learning to write, many of us may have been browbeaten into the idea that repetition is a bad thing. So to avoid negative connotations, I would like to emphasize that I’m using variants of the term restate instead of repeat—there is a difference, subtle but there.
At this point, one might ask why anything should be restated—if something has been stated, there is no reason to say it again. Restating something over the course of a sequence actually helps create directed emphasis, homing in on an idea. Restatements can be at the word, phrase, clause, or sentence level.
To keep things short, I am focusing on just three techniques today. Other techniques will be in a future post.
Anaphora
Anaphora is a front-loaded form of restatement, and the structure is fairly straightforward, following a pattern of restatement-variation: X _____ X _____ X _____, where “X” stands for the restated portion and the underline for the variants. To see a recent example of anaphora, scroll up to the first sentence of this post. 😊 For a more classic and appropriate example, let’s take a look at an excerpt from Winston Churchill’s 1940 speech, “We Shall Fight on the Beaches.” Please note the bold sections.
We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.
Epistrophe
Epistrophe is pretty much an inverse of anaphora. Instead of placing the restatement at the beginning, the writer places it at the end. In the following structure description, “X” stands for the restated portion and the underline for the variants: _____ X _____ X _____ X. An example of epistrophe is in Barack Obama’s 2008 “Yes We Can” speech, in which he used it at a sentence level. Again, note the bold sections.
It was a creed written into the founding documents that declared the destiny of a nation. Yes we can. It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as they blazed a trail towards freedom through the darkest of nights. Yes we can. It was sung by immigrants as they struck out from distant shores and pioneers who pushed westward against an unforgiving wilderness. Yes we can.
Symploce
Symploce is a combination of anaphora and epistrophe with restated words at the beginning and the end. In the sample structure that follows, “X” represents one restated section and “O” represents a different section of restated words while the underline represents the varied words: X _____ O X _____ O X _____ O. Queen Elizabeth II used symploce in her Palm Sunday address about COVID in 2020. The anaphora section is in bold and the epistrophe section is underlined; together, they make symploce.
We will be with our friends again; we will be with our families again; we will meet again.
Closing
Using these ideas in your writing can help you emphasize your intended focus. Using these ideas in conjunction with those in my previous post about lists can also help with your communication techniques. (Two of the famous examples mentioned here combine devices outlined in both posts.)
As mentioned, there will be a follow-up post about other ways to restate ideas—not sure when, but eventually.
For Further Reading
Harris, Robert A. 2018. Writing with Clarity and Style: A Guide to Rhetorical Devices for Contemporary Writers. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
Lanham, Richard A. 1991. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Quinn, Arthur. 1982. Figures of Speech: 60 Ways to Turn a Phrase. Salt Lake City: Gibbs M. Smith.